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Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. It happens in two linked stages inside the chloroplast. The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes. Chlorophyll absorbs photons, which excite electrons and drive them along the electron transport chain. Water is split (photolysis), releasing oxygen as a by-product and replacing the lost electrons. The energy carried by those electrons pumps protons into the thylakoid space, creating a gradient. As protons flow back out through ATP synthase, ATP is made — this is chemiosmosis. NADP+ is reduced to NADPH. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma and does not need light directly. The enzyme RuBisCO fixes carbon dioxide onto a five-carbon sugar, RuBP. The resulting molecules are reduced using the ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to form G3P, some of which becomes glucose while the rest regenerates RuBP so the cycle can continue. Three factors can each become the limiting factor: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. Whichever is in shortest supply caps the overall rate — increasing the others will not help until the limiting factor is addressed.

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Photosynthesis (sample pack)

7 guide steps · 10 key concepts · 16 flashcards

Flashcards

Study guide

What photosynthesis does
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. Plants, algae, and some bacteria use it to build their own food from carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a by-product. Think of it as the reverse of the breathing-out step animals do.
Where it happens
It takes place in chloroplasts, organelles packed with the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs mostly red and blue light and reflects green, which is why leaves look green. Inside the chloroplast, two structures matter: the thylakoid membranes and the stroma.
The overall equation
6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. Six carbon dioxide and six water molecules, powered by light, yield one glucose and six oxygen. Notice every oxygen atom released comes from water, not from carbon dioxide.
Stage 1 — the light-dependent reactions
In the thylakoid membranes, light splits water (photolysis), releasing O₂ and energising electrons. This produces two energy carriers, ATP and NADPH. These reactions literally require light — stop the light and they stop.
Stage 2 — the Calvin cycle
In the stroma, the ATP and NADPH from stage 1 are spent to 'fix' carbon dioxide into glucose. These reactions don't need light directly, but they depend on the products of the light reactions, so they can't run for long in the dark.
How the two stages connect
The light reactions are the power plant; the Calvin cycle is the factory. Energy carriers (ATP, NADPH) flow from the thylakoids to the stroma. This hand-off is the single most tested idea: light reactions make energy, the Calvin cycle uses it to make sugar.
What limits the rate
Three factors can each become the limiting factor: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. Whichever is in shortest supply caps the rate — raising the others won't help until you fix the limiting one.

Key concepts

Chloroplast: The organelle where photosynthesis occurs; contains chlorophyll, thylakoids, and stroma.
Chlorophyll: The green pigment that absorbs light (mainly red and blue) to power photosynthesis.
Thylakoid: Membrane-bound compartments inside the chloroplast where the light-dependent reactions happen.
Stroma: The fluid surrounding the thylakoids, where the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions) takes place.
Light-dependent reactions: Reactions in the thylakoid membrane that use light to split water and produce ATP and NADPH.
Calvin cycle: Light-independent reactions in the stroma that use ATP and NADPH to fix CO₂ into glucose.
Photolysis: The light-driven splitting of water that releases oxygen and provides electrons.
ATP: The short-term energy carrier produced in the light reactions and spent in the Calvin cycle.
NADPH: An electron/energy carrier made in the light reactions and used to build glucose.
Limiting factor: The factor in shortest supply (light, CO₂, or temperature) that caps the rate of photosynthesis.

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